Tradeshow Directory Expofolio

AANA	:	abbrev. Australian Association of National Advertisers

AARDS	:	abbrev. Australian Advertising Rate and Data Service.

ABC Account Classification	:	"the classification of customer accounts within a sales territory or region into groups according to their size and potential, and, therefore, their importance; the classification is used primarily to determine call frequency. "

ABC Inventory Analysis	:	the classification of goods held in inventory according to sales volume; the classification is used primarily to determine stock location within the warehouse.

Above-the-Line Advertising	:	"advertising which employs one of five main media - the press, television, radio, cinema and posters. See Below-the-Line Advertising. "

ABS	:	abbrev. Australian Bureau of Statistics.

Absolute Cost Advantage	:	"the cost advantage one company has over another if it has a cheaper source of raw materials, control of superior knowledge through patents, cheaper manufacturing or assembly costs, or similar benefit. "

Absolute Costs	:	the minimum costs that an organization must bear to remain in business. See Absolute Cost Advantage.

Absolute Product Failure	:	a new product introduction which does not manage to recover its production and marketing costs; the company incurs a financial loss.

Accelerated Test Marketing	:	market testing of consumer goods using a simulated store technique rather than an actual test market; also referred to as Laboratory Test Markets and Purchase Laboratories.

Accelerator Principle	:	"the notion that an increase or reduction in consumer demand will affect several layers of demand in organisational markets; for example, an increase in consumer demand for soft drinks will will lead to an increased demand by retailers for soft drinks, an increased demand by soft drink bottlers for aluminium cans, an increased demand by aluminium can manufacturers for aluminium sheet, an increased demand by aluminium sheet manufacturers for aluminium ore, and so on. See Derived Demand. "

Acceptable Price Range	:	"an expectation in the minds of consumers regarding price levels for a product category; consumers are reluctant to buy below the acceptable price range for fear that the product will be inferior, or above it because the expected benefit of the product is not worth the price. "

Access Barriers	:	factors such as tariffs and legal restrictions which reduce the size of a market by preventing potential customers from purchasing a particular product.

Accessibility	:	"one of the four major requirements (with actionability, measurability and substantiality) for useful market segmentation; accessibility expresses the notion that the segment targeted must be able to be reached and served adequately by the firm's promotion and distribution system. See Actionability; Measurability; Substantiality. "

Accessory Equipment	:	"goods and materials purchased by organizations for use in production, administrative, clerical or marketing activities, but not directly in the manufacture of finished products. "

Account Executive	:	see Account Manager.

Account Manager	:	a sales representative responsible for a major customer account or group of major accounts; also referred to as an account executive.

Account Objectives	:	the specific aims and sales goals to be achieved within a specified period by a salesperson for an account for which he or she is responsible.

Account Penetration Ratio	:	"a measure used to evaluate salespeople; the percentage of accounts from which orders are secured is calculated to provide a measure of whether the salesperson is working the territory in a systematic way or simply ""milking"" major accounts. "

Account Representative	:	a salesperson with direct responsibility for one specific major account or a group of major accounts.

Account Strategies	:	broad methods employed in achieving the objectives set by a salesperson for a particular account.

Accountants' Marketing	:	"a term sometimes used to describe an approach to marketing characterized by an emphasis on short-term sales results rather than on long-term survival and growth, and by a lack of innovation. "

Acid-Test Ratio	:	one of three ratios commonly used to evaluate a firm's liquidity; calculated by dividing cash by current liabilities. See Current Ratio; Quick Ratio.

Action Plan	:	see Action Program.

Action Program	:	"a detailed plan showing how major marketing tasks will be managed and implemented, who will do them, and when; also called an Action Plan. "

Actionability	:	"one of the major requirements (with accessibility, measurability and substantiality) for useful market segmentation; actionability expresses the notion that the segment targeted must be of an appropriate size for the company's resources to handle. See Accessibility; Measurability; Substantiality. "

Active Listening	:	listening that is more than passively hearing what the customer is saying; implies the need for a salesperson to think while listening and to evaluate what is being said.

Activity Quota	:	"a common form of sales assignment, goal or target used to measure a sales representative's performance in relation to his or her selling activities; activities used in this way include total calls made, total sales made, number of new accounts opened, number of displays set up, and so on. Other common forms of sales quotas are unit volume quotas, dollar volume quotas, gross margin quotas and net profit quotas. See Sales Quota. "

Activity Reports	:	"reports requiring salespeople to provide details (such as number of calls made, new accounts opened, displays arranged, dealer sales meetings attended and so on) as a measure of their activity in a given period. "

ACTU	:	abbrev. Australian Council of Trade Unions.

Actual Product	:	"the tangible features of a product, including styling, quality level, features, brand name and packaging; also called the Formal Product or Tangible Product. See Augmented Product; Core Product. "

Ad Hoc Marketing Research	:	"marketing research conducted in response to a specific, one-time-only need. "

Adaptation Approach to Pricing	:	"an approach in global marketing in which an organization allows an affiliate or subsidiary to set the most desirable price, provided it is profitable, in its own region; also referred to as the Polycentric Approach. See also Extension Approach; Geocentric Approach. "

Adaptive Control System	:	a system of marketing control which allows for changes to be made to marketing objectives during a planning period as well as to the performance to meet the objectives; a pro-active marketing control system. See After-the-Fact Control System; Marketing Control System; Reactive Marketing Control System; Steering Control System.

Adaptive Selling	:	a technique in selling which calls for the salesperson to adapt his or her social style to that of the buyer in order to maximize effectiveness. See Social Style.

Adaptive Strategies	:	"domestic marketing tactics, plans and methods which have been altered to suit local conditions in foreign markets. "

Adaptivising	:	"a planning philosophy implying a firm's intention to continue to maintain, and expand, its present operations; to do better things in the future than have been done in the past. See Optimising; Satisficing. "

Added Value	:	"the increased worth of a firm's offering as a result of marketing; four factors which generate the additional value are features, quality, customer perception (or image) and exclusiveness. "

ADI	:	See Area of Dominant Influence.

ADMA	:	abbrev. Australian Direct Marketing Association.

Administered Channel Arrangement	:	see Administered Vertical Marketing System.

Administered Prices	:	cost-oriented pricing in which a firm bases its prices on considerations within the firm rather than on customer considerations.

Administered Vertical Marketing System	:	a co-ordinated system of distribution channel organisation in which the flow of products from producer to end-user is controlled by the power and size of one member of the channel system rather than by common ownership or contractual ties. See Contractual Vertical Marketing System; Conventional Marketing System; Corporate Vertical Marketing System; Vertical Marketing System.

Adopter Category	:	"the ranking into which adopters of a new product fall according to their willingness and speed to embrace a new product; adopter categories are normally listed as innovators, early adopters, early majority, late majority and laggards. See Diffusion of Innovation. "

Adoption	:	the choice of one product over another.

Adoption of Innovation Curve	:	a normal distribution curve illustrating the fact that customers vary widely in their willingness or readiness to purchase new products. See Diffusion of Innovation.

Adoption Process	:	"the series of stages, including awareness, interest, evaluation, trial and rejection or adoption, which consumers go through in their decision-making process; also called the Adoption Sequence. "

Adoption Rate Determinants	:	factors which influence the rate of adoption of a new product. See Communicability; Compatibility; Complexity; Divisibility; Relative Advantage.

Adoption Sequence	:	see Adoption Process.

Advance Australia Foundation	:	"a partly government-funded organisation, established in 1979 as Project Australia, formed to promote the sale of Australian-made products. "

Advantage	:	see Competitive Advantage.

Advantage Matrix	:	see Boston Consulting Group Advantage Matrix.

Adversarial Shopper	:	a consumer whose shopping behaviour is characterised by a determination to get good value at a low price; a bargain hunter; one who regards all prices as negotiable.

Advertising	:	"the paid, public, non-personal announcement of a persuasive message by an identified sponsor; the non-personal presentation or promotion by a firm of its products to its existing and potential customers. See Promotion. "

Advertising Agency	:	"a firm specialising in the creation, design and media placement of advertisements, and in the planning and execution of promotional campaigns. See Full-Service Advertising Agency; Limited-Service Advertising Agency. "

Advertising Allocation	:	see Advertising Budget.

Advertising Allowance	:	"a discount given to a retailer by a supplier whose brand or product is featured in the store's newspaper, television or radio advertising or in catalogs, flyers or similar promotional pieces. See Allowances; Discounts. "

Advertising Appropriation	:	see Advertising Budget.

Advertising Budget	:	the sum allocated in a particular accounting period for expenditure on advertising; also called an Advertising Allocation or an Advertising Appropriation.

Advertising Budget Determination	:	"decisions pertaining to the amount to be allocated to advertising expenditure in a given period; common approaches to advertising budget determination include arbitary allocation, percent of sales, competitive parity, objective and task and budgeting models. See All-We-Can-Afford Method; Percentage-of-Sales Method; Competitive Parity Budgeting; Objective and Task Method of Budgeting; Computer Modelling. "

Advertising Copy	:	the content and context of a message contained in an advertisement.

Advertising Effectiveness	:	"the degree to which the objectives of an advertisement or advertising campaign have been achieved; the effectiveness is commonly gauged by measuring the effect on sales, brand awareness, brand preference, etc. See Communication Effect of Advertising; Sales Effect of Advertising. "

Advertising Elasticities	:	"measurements of the effect on other marketing variables of various levels of advertising expenditure; for example, measurement of the effect of high levels of advertising on consumer perceptions of price, or the measurement of the low levels of advertising on consumer perceptions of product quality. "

Advertising Exposure	:	"one presentation of an advertisement to an audience; advertising managers must decide how many ""exposures"" will be required to achieve their goal or objective. "

Advertising Federation of Australia	:	an association representing the interests of Australian advertising agencies.

Advertising Goal	:	a particular communication task to be accomplished with a specific target audience in a given period of time.

Advertising Impact	:	see Impact.

Advertising Institute of Australia	:	an association representing the interests of individuals within the advertising industry in Australia.

Advertising Media	:	"outlets or vehicles (for instance, newspapers and magazines, television, radio, cinema, posters, etc) used in communication between advertisers and customers. Note that advertising media is a plural term; its singular form is advertising medium. "

Advertising Medium	:	see Advertising Media.

Advertising Message	:	"the central, underlying idea or theme within an advertisement. "

Advertising Objectives	:	"specific aims or intentions of an advertisement (for example, to inform, to persuade, to remind). "

Advertising Planning Process	:	"the steps or stages taken in planning an advertising campaign; the steps include identifying the target market, establishing the advertising objectives, developing the advertising budget, developing the advertising strategies, selecting the appropriate media, and evaluating the advertising effectiveness. "

Advertising Platform	:	the basic issues or selling points that a company wishes to have included in an advertising campaign.

Advertising Research	:	research done to test the effectiveness of advertising; this may include the pre-testing and post-evaluating of specific advertisements and campaigns. Communication-effect research attempts to measure whether the advertising communicates effectively; sales-effect research attempts to measure whether it produces the desired level of sales.

Advertising Site	:	Advertising Space

Advertising Space	:	Advertising Standards Council

Advertising Standards Council	:	"a body comprising representatives from the retail trade, trade unions, academics, advertising agencies and the media established to administer voluntary advertising codes and to provide a vehicle for consumer complaints about advertising. "

Advertising Target	:	"the entire market, or some part of it, which a firm wishes to attract with its advertisement. "

Advertising Testing -	:	ADvertising-to-Editorial Ratio

ADvertising-to-Editorial Ratio	:	the measure of the proportion of advertising space to editorial matter in a newspaper or magazine.

Advertising-to-Marketing Ratio	:	a marketing control measure used to determine whether the amount spent on advertising in a given period was excessive; total advertising expenditure is expressed as a percentage ot total marketing expenditure.

Advertising-to-Sales Ratio	:	a marketing control measure used to determine whether the amount spent on advertising in a given period was excessive; total advertising expenditure is expressed as a percentage of total sales revenue.

Advertising Wearout	:	see Consumer Wearout.

Advertorial Advertising	:	advertising in which the sponsoring organisation declares its position on a matter of public interest (usually of a controversial nature). See Advocacy Advertising.

Adviser Approach	:	"a closing technique in which a salesperson specifies all that a customer will require to solve the problem at hand, and advises (or counsels) that the offer be accepted; also referred to as the Counsellor Close. See Close. "

Advocacy Advertising	:	"a paid, overtly-sponsored communication or message which presents information or a point of view on a controversial public issue, idea or cause. See Advertorial Advertising. "

Aesthetic Needs	:	see Self-Actualisation Needs.

AFA	:	abbrev. Advertising Federation of Australia.

AFAMI	:	abbrev. Associate Fellow of the Australian Marketing Institute.

AFCO	:	abbrev. Australian Federation of Consumer Organisations.

Affordable Method	:	see All-We-Can-Afford Method.

AFMA	:	abbrev. Associate Fellow of the Marketing Association of Australia and New Zealand.

Aftermarket	:	"the market for parts and supplies for machines, equipment, etc after they have been purchased. "

After-the-Fact Control System	:	a system of marketing control in which corrective action is taken at the end of a planning period when marketing performance does not meet expectations; changes are made in an attempt to rectify the situation for the next planning period. See Adaptive Control System; Marketing Control System; Reactive Marketing Control System; Steering Control System.

Agent	:	"an intermediary or middleman who facilitates the flow of goods and services from producer to end-user, but who, unlike other members of the distribution channel, does not take title to them. "

Agribusiness	:	the marketing of food and fibre products.

Agricultural Cooperative	:	an organisation formed by a group of farmers to achieve some or all of the advantages of large-scale marketing.

Agricultural Substitute	:	"a product that is manufactured from farm produce but which is a substitute for a more traditional farm commodity. For example, soy-protein steaks are a substitute for beef steaks. "

AIA	:	abbrev. Advertising Institute of Australia.

AIDA Concept	:	"a formula used in selling to produce a favourable response from a customer. The assumption is that the salesperson must first make the potential customer aware of a product; foster interest; stimulate desire; and, finally, encourage action (to purchase). See Formula Selling. "

AIDCA	:	"acronym for Awareness, Interest, Desire, Conviction, Action; mental states which supposedly lead a potential customer to a buying decision. See Formula Selling. "

Aided Recall Test	:	"a method of post-testing the effectiveness of an advertisement or advertising campaign; respondents are shown products, brand names, trademarks, etc to assist their memories. See Unaided Recall Test. "

AIM	:	abbrev. Australian Institute of Management.

AIO Statements	:	"expressions of a person's attitudes towards, interests in, and opinions of, a product. See Psychographics. "

All-We-Can-Afford Method	:	"a simple method of determining a budget (for advertising, etc) in which the amount allocated is the amount that can be afforded; also called the What-We-Can Afford Method, the Affordable Method and the Arbitrary Method. See Advertising Budget Determination. "

Allowances	:	"amounts deducted from an invoice in return for prompt payment, large quantity purchase, special promotions etc of goods and services supplied. See Discount. "

Alternative Advertising	:	"advertising which uses media other than the traditional media; examples of alternative advertising include advertising signs on parking meters and supermarket shopping trolleys, in-store video screens, etc. "

Alternative Close	:	"a closing technique in which a salesperson presents two alternatives in an attempt to get a commitment from the buyer to one, (eg. ""The red or the black?"", ""Cash or card?"") See Close. "

Alternative Media	:	"media vehicles, apart from the traditional ones, which are available for promotional purposes; examples of newer alternative media are video catalogs and audiotext. See Video Calalog; Audiotext. "

AMA	:	abbrev. American Marketing Association

AMI	:	abbrev. Australian Marketing Institute.

Amiable (Social Style)	:	"one of four social styles (with Analytical, Driver and Expressive) commonly used to classify salespeople and their customers in terms of their communication approach; Amiables are characterised by high responsiveness and low assertiveness. See Analytical; Driver; Expressive; Assertiveness; Responsiveness; Social Style. "

Analytical (Social Style)	:	"one of four social styles (with Amiable, Driver and Expressive) commonly used to classify salespeople and their customers in terms of their communication approach; Analyticals are characterised by low responsiveness and low assertiveness. See Amiable; Driver; Expressive; Assertiveness; Responsiveness; Social Style. "

Anchor Store	:	"a popular, major retailer located within a shopping mall to attract mall patronage. "

Ansoff Matrix	:	"a tool, devised by Igor Ansoff, to provide a logical framework for the understanding and development of marketing objectives; the basis of the matrix is the degree of newness of the products to be sold and of the markets to be targeted. "

Anticipatory Pricing	:	"the practice of setting a somewhat higher price than would otherwise have been chosen in expectation of cost inflation, government price control, or similar environmental circumstance. "

APN	:	abbrev. Australian Product Number.

Approach	:	the stage in the selling process in which a salesperson contacts a potential customer to make an appointment or to present a product.

Arbitrary Method	:	see All-We-Can-Afford Method.

Area Market Potential	:	"an estimate of the amount of sales, in units and dollars, that might be possible in a given territory or region under a given level of industry marketing effort under given environmental conditions. "

Area Market Specialist	:	"a marketing manager, with good local knowledge, located in a high-volume, distinctive market to support the sales effort. "

Area of Dominant Influence	:	the geographic region covered by a particular television station; also referred to as the station's Designated Marketing Area (DMA).

Arm's-Length Price	:	"the price which various governments force companies to charge to discourage ""dumping"" abuses; the arm's length price is the price charged by competitors for the same or similar product. "

ASC	:	abbrev. Advertising Standards Council.

ASCC	:	abbrev. Australian Standard Commodity Classification.

Asch Phemonenon	:	"a tendency, first recorded by the psychologist S.E.Asch, for an individual's purchase decisions to be influenced highly by reference groups and group norms. See Group Influences; Reference Group. "

Aseptic Packaging	:	"a packaging method developed in Sweden in the 1950s; made of paper, foil and plastic aseptic packaging keeps foods bacteria-free for months without refrigeration. See Packaging; Primary Packaging; Secondary Packaging; Shipping Packaging. "

ASIC	:	abbrev. Australian Standard Industrial Classification.

Aspirational Group	:	"a sub-category of a reference group, consisting of individuals (not necessarily known personally) with whom a person desires to be associated. See Contactual Reference Group; Dissociative Reference Group; Membership Group; Reference Groups. "

Assemblers	:	wholesaling firms specialising in the buying of small quantities of farm produce to resell to other firms in bulk; also referred to as the Assembly Market.

Assembly Market	:	see Assemblers.

Assertiveness	:	the human characteristic or quality which determines the degree to which individuals are directive and competitive in manner as opposed to non-directive and co-operative. See Social Style.

Asset Turnover	:	a ratio used to evaluate the profitability of a firm; net sales in a given period are divided by total assets.

Asset-Based Marketing	:	a marketing approach which uses the knowledge and skills a company has already developed as the basis for growth.

Assorting	:	"the practice of putting together a wide variety of produce in one location, as in a department store. "

Assortment Strategies	:	options available to a reseller in determining the assortment of products and services to be carried. See Broad Assortment; Deep Assortment; Exclusive Assortment; Scrambled Assortment.

Assumptive Close	:	"a closing technique in which a salesperson simply assumes that the purchaser has agreed to buy the product, and proceeds to write up the order, wrap the merchandise, etc. See Close. "

At-Home TV Shopping	:	a form of non-store retailing in which products are shown on a television screen and presented enthusiastically by an announcer to stimulate impulse purchasing using credit card and telephone. See Non-Store Retailing.

ATC	:	See Average Total Cost.

Atmospherics	:	"the combination of store decor, physical characteristics and amenities provided by a retailer to develop a particular image and attract customers. "

Atomistic Competition	:	see Pure Competition.

Attention	:	Attitude Tracking

Attitude Tracking	:	measuring the degree of satisfaction with a product through an on-going study of consumer attitudes towards it.

Attitudes	:	"enduring favourable or unfavourable feelings, emotions and action tendencies towards a issue or subject. "

Attributes	:	see Features.

Audience	:	the intended receivers of an advertiser's message.

Audience Attention Probability	:	"the degree to which a target consumer is likely to pay attention to an advertisement in a particular media outlet; for example, the audience attention probability of an advertisement for a new shampoo is likely to be greater in a women's magazine than in a daily newspaper. "

Audience Profile	:	Audience Quality

Audience Quality	:	a measure of the kind and quality of the target consumers likely to be exposed to the advertisement.

Audience Research	:	Audience Tune-Out

Audience Tune-Out	:	"a phenomenon which occurs when relatively large groups of a radio or TV audience drop concentration, or stop listening altogether, for a period; audience tune-out may result from high clutter levels of commercial advertising or station or channel promotions in the non-programming time. See Clutter; Clutter Level. "

Audimeter	:	"a mechanical instrument or device for monitoring television usage and program choice (for ratings surveys, etc); colloquially called a people-meter or black box. See Single Source Data. "

Audiotext	:	"a relatively new, alternative promotional medium in which an advertiser's recorded message is reached by an interested potential purchaser by telephone. See Alternative Media. "

Audimeter	:	"an electronic device to record which particular television channel is tuned to by a household; marketing research firms use audimeters attached to a sample of TV sets to measure national exposure to TV advertisements; commonly referred to as a ""peoplemeter"" or ""black box"". See Advertising Effectiveness. "

Audit	:	see Marketing Audit.

Augmented Product	:	"a product enhanced by the addition of related services and benefits, eg. installation, warranty, maintenance and repair services, etc. See Core Product; Tangible Product. "

Australian Advertising Rate and Data Service	:	"a popular media reference guide (commonly called AARDS) subscribed to by advertising agencies, public relations consultancies, etc; the service provides regularly up-dated information on media companies, rates, technical specifications, circulations, readership profiles, etc. "

Australian Association of National Advertisers	:	an association representing the interests of large marketing companies in the advertising industry.

Australian Bureau of Statistics	:	"an Australian government agency which classifies organisations according to their economic activity, and collects and disseminates statistical information about Australian industry. "

Australian Council of Trade Unions	:	"the central body of the trade union movement in Australia; formed in the 1920s to represent the interests of trade unions nationally, its major concerns are industrial relations and wage payments to union members. "

Australian Direct Marketing Association	:	"an association, established in 1967, to represent the interests of direct mail marketers; a diverse group, consisting of individual and corporate members including direct marketing agencies, mailing houses, telemarketing bureaus, list brokers, charities, fund raisers and mail order merchandisers, it attempts to formulate and control appropriate standards of practice in direct marketing. "

Australian Federation of Consumer Organisations	:	the umbrella group for the consumer movement in Australia.

Australian Marketing Institute	:	"an association of marketing professionals founded in Sydney in 1933 as The Institute of Sales and Business Management; the aims of the Institute include the provision of aid and support to members in the furtherance of their careers, and the representation of the best interests of members to business, governments and the public. "

Australian Product Number	:	"a number allocated systematically to a product to distinguish it by producer, size, style, etc; the number, also translated into bar code form, is used in marketing decision-making, including stock control and inventory level adjustment. See Bar Code. "

Australian Standard Commodity Classification	:	a system developed by the Australian Bureau of Statistics as a method of defining and classifying products.

Australian Standard Industrial Classification	:	"a system developed by the Australian Bureau of Statistics as a method for classifying business establishments (shops, factories, etc) into classes, on the basis of their major activity, by industry. "

"Australian Standards, The "	:	"a basic guide to product standards for a wide range of products, published by the Standards Association of Australia. "

Authoritarian Leadership Style	:	a style of leadership characterised by an insistence upon obedience to authority. See Democratic Leadership Style.

Authorisation	:	see Brand Authorisation.

Automatic Merchandising	:	the selling of goods by use of vending machines.

Automatic Response Behaviour	:	see Routine Response Behaviour.

Automatic Vending	:	Autonomic Decision

Autonomic Decision	:	a purchase decision made by either spouse independently. See Syncratic Decision.

Available Market	:	"that part of the total market which professes an interest in a product, can afford to purchase it, and is not prevented by access barriers from reaching it. See Access Barriers; Market Entry Barriers. "

Average Cost	:	the average cost per unit of production of a set or group of products; the total cost of production divided by the total number produced; the Unit Cost. See Long-Run Average Cost; Short-Run Average Cost.

Average Cost Pricing	:	a pricing method in which a markup for profit is added to the average cost of production. See Cost-Plus Pricing.

Average Fixed Cost	:	"a measure of cost control, calculated by dividing the total fixed cost of the goods produced by the number of units sold. "

Average Revenue	:	"a measure used in price setting, calculated by dividing the total revenue by the number of units sold. "

Average Total Cost	:	"a measure of cost control, calculated by dividing the total cost of the goods produced by the number of units sold. "

Average Variable Cost	:	"a measure of cost control, calculated by dividing the total variable cost of the goods produced by the number of units sold. "

Aversive Factors	:	qualities about people that turn others against them and may prevent the development of successful working relationships.

Awareness	:	Awareness Set

Awareness Set	:	"the brands of which a consumer is aware; normally, the awareness set will be less than the total set of brands. See Choice Set; Evoked Set; Inept Set; Inert Set. "

Baby Boomers	:	"the generation of people born between 1946 and 1959, a period of explosive population growth in Australia. "

Baby Bouncers	:	"the generation of people who are the children of the ""baby boomers""; also referred to as Yuppie Puppies. See Baby Boomers. "

Backward Integration	:	"a strategy for growth in which a company seeks ownership of, or some measure of control over, its suppliers. See Forward Integration; Horizontal Integration. "

Backward Invention	:	an product strategy in international marketing in which a company produces a less complex version of its domestic product for developing and less-developed countries.

Backward Marketing Channel	:	see Reverse Marketing Channel.

Bagman	:	an eighteenth century term of British origin for a salesperson.

Bait Advertising	:	"an advertising practice, now illegal in Australia, in which attractive, low-priced goods, few or any of which are actually in stock, are advertised to attract purchasers to a store or selling place. "

Bait and Switch Pricing	:	"advertising an item at an unrealistically low price as ""bait"" to lure customers to a store or selling place and then attempting to steer them to a higher-priced item. "

Bait Pricing	:	"advertising an item at an unrealistically low price as ""bait"" to lure customers to a store or selling place. See Bait and Switch Pricing. "

Balance of Payments	:	the difference between the payments made to foreign nations and the receipts from foreign nations in a given period.

Balance of Trade	:	the difference between the value of the goods and services sold to foreign nations (exports) and the value of the goods and services bought from foreign nations (imports) in a given period.

Balance Sheet Close	:	"a closing technique in which the salesperson assists an indecisive prospect to list on paper the ""arguments for"" and ""arguments against"" a particular product choice. Also known as the Benjamin Franklin Close. See Close. "

Balanced Product Portfolio	:	"a product strategy in which a firm maintains an even combination of new, growing and mature products. See Product Life Cycle "

Banded Offers	:	see Banded Pack.

Banded Pack	:	a consumer sales promotion in which two related product items are banded together and sold at a special price. See Price Packs.

Bar Code	:	"an arrangement of lines and spaces in code form used to identify a product by style, size, price, quality, quantity, etc. The code, read by a scanning device, is used in marketing decision-making, including stock control and inventory level adjustment. "

Bar Code Scanners	:	see Scanner Systems.

Bargaining Power	:	the strength or influence one party has in a business negotiation; the capacity of one party to dominate by virtue of its size or position or by a combination of personality and negotiating tactics.

Barriers to Entry	:	see Access Barriers; Market Entry Barrier.

Barter	:	an exchange in which one good is traded for another; money is not involved.

Bartering	:	exchanging goods for others of equal value.

Base-Point Pricing	:	"a pricing method in which customers are charged freight costs from a base point; the base-point may be chosen arbitrarily, but the location of one of the company's manufacturing plants is commonly used. Also called Basing-Point Pricing. See Delivered Pricing; Phantom Freight. "

Basic Accounting Equation	:	the balancing relationship between a firm's assets and the sum of its liabilities and equity.

Basic Stock	:	the level of inventory required to meet the desired service standard taking into account the expected rate of depletion and the order lead time.

Basing-Point Pricing	:	see Base-Point Pricing.

Batchelor Stage	:	the first stage of the family life cycle. See Family Life Cycle.

Battle of the Brands	:	"a term used in reference to the often intense competition between manufacturers' brands, wholesalers' brands and retailers' brands. See Distributor's Brand; Manufacturer's Brand. "

Bayesian Decision Theory	:	BCG

BCG	:	abbrev. Boston Consulting Group.

Behaviouristic Segmentation	:	"the division of a market into groups according to their knowledge of, and behaviour towards, a particular product. Behavioural dimensions commonly used to segment markets include benefits sought, user status, usage rate, loyalty status and buyer readiness stage. See Segmentation Bases. "

Bells and Whistles	:	"the optional features built into a basic product to satisfy or impress as large as possible a number of buyers; the term ""plain vanilla"" is an equivalent slang term used to describe a product with only the most basic features. "

Belongingness and Love Needs	:	the desire for love and affection from others. See Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs.

Below-the-Line Advertising	:	"all advertising by means other than the five major media - the press, television, radio, cinema and outdoors; below-the-line advertising employs a variety of methods - direct mail, sponsorship, merchandising, trade shows, exhibitions, sales literature and catalogues, and so on. See Above-the-Line Advertising. "

Benchmark -	:	Benchmarking -

Benchmarking -	:	Benefit Segmentation

Benefit Segmentation	:	the division of a market into groups or segments on the basis of the particular benefit sought by each group from a product. See Behaviouristic Segmentation.

Benefit-in-Reserve Close	:	see Incentive Close.

Benefits Sought	:	the specific advantages looked for in products when buyers purchase them. See Behaviouristic Segmentation.

Benjamin Franklin Close	:	see Balance Sheet Close.

BEP	:	abbrev. Break-Even Point.

Better Mousetrap Fallacy	:	the mistaken notion that if a company produces a technically better product than its competitors it will be more successful in the marketplace.

Bias	:	see Interviewer Bias.

Bidding	:	a pricing method in which selling organisations bid for a buyer's custom; the bid is the seller's price offer.

Billings	:	the amount of money spent on media buying by advertising agencies on behalf of clients.

Bird Dogs	:	"individuals, sometimes junior salespeople, who seek out sales leads and prospects for more experienced salespeople. See Prospects; Sales Leads; Spotters. "

Birdyback	:	a system of transportation requiring the transfer of containers from truck to aeroplane. See Fishyback; Piggyback.

Black Box	:	"a colloquial term for an electronic TV audience measurement system; an audiometer; a ""people-meter"". "

Black Box Model (of Consumer Behaviour)	:	"a model used in the study of the buying behaviour of consumers; the model assumes that what takes place in the consumer's ""black box"" of the consumer's mind can be inferred from a study of observed stimuli and responses. "

Blanket Branding	:	see Family Brand.

Blanket Contract	:	see Blanket Purchase Order.

Blanket Purchase Order	:	a purchase arrangement in which a buyer contracts with a supplier to take delivery of an agreed quantity of goods at a specified price over a fixed period of time; also called a Blanket Contract.

Blocked Markets	:	"markets, especially in foreign countries, to which entry permission is refused, or in which it is not possible to compete on reasonable terms. "

Blue Sky Laws	:	legislation intended to prevent sales to gullible investors.

Body Copy	:	the desriptive paragraphs in a print advertisement (as opposed to the headlines.

Body Language	:	"a nonverbal form of communication in which posture, facial expressions, hand movements, etc, convey a message from sender to receiver. See Nonverbal Communication; Kinesic Communication; Proxemic Communication; Tactile Communication. "

Bonus Plan	:	a scheme for additional payments to salespeople to be made at the discretion of management for a particular sales achievement.

Boomerang Method	:	"hurling a buyer's objection back as a reason for buying. If, for example, a buyer objects that he or she cannot afford the item, a salesperson might answer, ""Yes, but can you afford not to buy it?""; sometimes referred to as the Translation Method. See Objections. "

"Booz, Allen and Hamilton "	:	"a U.S. based marketing consulting firm, especially recognised for its studies of failure rates in new product introductions. "

Boredom Avoidance	:	"a term used to describe an approach to new product introduction or product differentiation; that is, a new variety of a product may be introduced merely to give consumers more choice; useful when the cost of introducing a new product is low. "

Boston Consulting Group	:	"a Harvard-based marketing consultancy, best known for its portfolio analysis technique devised in 1970. See Boston Consulting Group Portfolio Analysis Matrix. "

Boston Consulting Group Advantage Matrix	:	"a marketing planning tool devised by the Harvard-based Boston Consulting Group; taking as its axes economies of scale and opportunities for differentiation, it indicates an organisation's optimal competitive strategy. "

Boston Consulting Group Portfolio Analysis Matrix	:	"a tool, devised by the Harvard-based Boston Consulting Group, for use in product and strategic business unit (SBU) planning; the matrix, based on the percentage rate of market growth per annum and the market share relative to the market leader, allows the planner to categorise each product or SBU as a ""Cash Cow"", ""Star"", ""Question Marks"" (or ""Problem Child"") or ""Dog"", and to develop marketing strategies appropriate to each category's propensity to generate, or use, cash. See Cash Cows; Dogs; Question Marks; Stars. "

Bottom Line	:	"a colloquial term meaning ""profits"". "

Bottom-Up Approach to Planning	:	a participative approach to planning in which there is involvement at all levels; plans are developed at the lower levels of an organisation and funnelled up through consecutive levels until they reach top management. See Top-Down Approach to Planning.

Bottom-Up Approach to Promotion Budgeting	:	"an approach to promotion budgeting which takes as its basis the tasks that are thought to be necessary to achieve the specified promotion objectives; these tasks are costed and the total cost, when approved by top management, is the budget. See Objective and Task Budgeting; Top-Down Approach to Promotion Budgeting. "

Bottom-Up Approach to Sales Forecasting	:	"an approach to sales forecasting which takes market conditions rather than the company's objectives as its basis; sometimes referred to as the ""build-up"" method. See Top-Down Approach to Sales Forecasting. "

Boundary-Spanning Role	:	"the difficult dual role played by sales managers and senior account managers who, in developing close relationships with clients, must provide the link between company and customer. "

Brainstorming	:	"an idea generating process commonly used in new product development; the process encourages open communication and full participation by group members, while withholding any criticism. Evaluation takes place after all ideas have been expressed. See Idea Generation; New Product Development. "

Brand	:	"a name, sign, symbol or design, or some combination of these, used to identify a product and to differentiate it from competitors' products. "

Brand Acceptance	:	see Brand Loyalty.

Brand Advertising	:	"the featuring of a particular brand in media vehicles in order to build strong, long-term consumer attitudes towards it. "

Brand Authorisation	:	"the obtaining of distribution and display, usually of a consumer packaged good, through a retail outlet. "

Brand Awareness	:	see Brand Familiarity.

Brand Competitors	:	competing brands of products which can satisfy a consumer's wants almost equally as well as each other. See Competitors.

Brand Concept	:	the image that the brand sponsor wants a particular brand to have; the desired positioning of the brand in the market and in the minds of consumers.

Brand Conviction	:	the strong attitude or attachment consumers have towards a particular brand.

Brand Development Index	:	"a ratio of brand consumption intensity to population intensity by country, state, city, region, etc. "

Brand Equity	:	a term used in reference to the value of a well-known brand; brand equity can greatly affect the buyout price of a company.

Brand Establishment	:	the building-up of a brand in the introductory stage of the product's life cycle; brand establishment involves developing an effective distribution network for the product and convincing consumers to buy it. See Introductory Stage of the Product Life Cycle.

Brand Extension	:	"the use of a well-known brand name to launch a new product, of an unrelated category, into the market; also called Franchise Extension. "

Brand Familiarity	:	the awareness consumers have of a particular brand.

Brand Family	:	See Family Brand.

Brand Franchise	:	the loyalty that attaches to a well-managed brand. See Brand Extension.

Brand Harvesting	:	"decreasing marketing expenditure on a brand to zero, or to a minimal level, when sales and profits begin to decline, relying on its purchase by loyal customers to sustain it; brand harvesting (which often precedes total elimination of the brand) is usually undertaken to free up cash with which to pursue new market opportunities. "

Brand Identification Decisions	:	"decisions relating to the type of brand to give to a product; four brand identity alternatives are available - single brand name (""Pal"" dog food), product-line brand name (Sears' Kenmore home appliance range), corporate brand name (""Kellogg's Sustain"") and corporate family name (""Heinz Baked Beans""). See Individual Brand; Family Brand; Corporate Branding, Product-Line Brand Name; Single Brand Name. "

Brand Image	:	"the feelings, moods, emotions and connotations evoked by a brand. "

Brand Insistence	:	the stage of brand loyalty where the buyer will accept no alternative and will search extensively for the required brand. See Brand Preference; Brand Recognition.

Brand Label	:	a label which gives the brand name of the product.

Brand Leveraging	:	"broadening a company's product range by introducing additional forms or types of products under a brand name which is already successful in another category. Also called Product Leveraging, Brand Extension and Franchise Extension. "

Brand Licensing	:	the leasing of the use of a brand to another company.

Brand Life Cycle	:	"a concept, building on the product life cycle concept, which states that brands also have a life cycle - introduction, growth, maturity, decline - and that particular brand management strategies are appropriate at each stage. See Product Life Cycle. "

Brand Loyalists	:	consumers who remain loyal to a brand over a long period of time. See Brand Loyalty; Brand Promiscuity; Brand Switching.

Brand Loyalty	:	"a measure of the degree to which a buyer recognises, prefers and insists upon a particular brand; brand loyalty results from continued satisfaction with a product considered important and gives rise to repeat purchases of products with little thought but with high-involvement. See High-Involvement Products. "

Brand Manager	:	an individual given responsibility for planning and co-ordinating the firm's marketing activities related to a single brand.

Brand Map	:	see Perceptual Mapping.

Brand Mark	:	"the part of a brand which can be seen but not spoken; the logo, symbol or design that forms part of the brand. See Brand Name. "

Brand Monopoly	:	a circumstance in which a particular brand dominates a market.

Brand Name	:	"the part of a brand which can be spoken. It may include words, letters or numbers. See Brand Mark. "

Brand Personality	:	the feeling that people have about a brand as distinct from what the product can actually do.

Brand Positioning Map	:	Brand Power

Brand Power	:	the force a particular brand has to dominate its category through the magnitude of its recognition.

Brand Preference	:	the stage of brand loyalty at which a buyer will select a particular brand but will choose a competitor's brand if the preferred brand is unavailable. See Brand Insistence; Brand Recognition.

Brand Promiscuity	:	consumer buying behaviour marked by an absence of brand loyalty. See Brand Loyalty.

Brand Protection	:	legislation forbidding other firms from using a company's registered brand names or brand marks without permission.

Brand Recognition	:	the stage of brand loyalty at which the buyer is aware of the existence of a particular brand but has no preference for it. See Brand Insistence; Brand Preference.

Brand Reinforcement	:	activity associated with getting consumers who have tried a particular brand to become repeat purchasers and with attracting new users; brand reinforcement is a key objective of the growth stage of the product's life cycle. See Growth Stage of the Product Life Cycle.

Brand Repositioning	:	changing the appeal of a brand in order for it to attract new market segments; brand repositioning may or may not involve modifying the product.

Brand Revitalisation	:	"strategy employed when a brand has reached maturity and profits begin to decline; approaches to revitalisation may include one or all of market expansion, product modification or brand repositioning. "

Brand Revival	:	"the resurrection of a brand that is being harvested or which has previously been eliminated; brand revival, where the brand name is still strong, is often a less costly strategy than the creation of a new brand and may provide a firm with a significant advantage in a mature market. "

Brand Sponsor	:	"the manufacturer, wholesaler or retailer who owns the brand. See Distributor's Brand; Generic Brand; Manufacturer's Brand. "

Brand Strategies	:	"decision-making for the effective handling of brands; three general branding strategies are available - a single brand for all of the organisation's products, family branding, or the use of individual brand names for all products. See Corporate Branding; Family Brand; Individual Brand Name. "

Brand Switching	:	the changing of support and conviction for one brand to a competing brand. See Brand Loyalty.

Breadth of Product Line	:	see Width of Product Line.

Break-Even	:	the point at which total revenue is equal to total cost.

Break-Even Analysis	:	a method of determining the number of units of a product that must be sold at a given price in order to recover the total cost of production.

Breakthrough Opportunities	:	"opportunities that are seen by innovative firms which develop hard-to-imitate marketing strategies that are very profitable for a long time; less creative firms adopt risk-avoiding ""me-too"" strategies. See Follow-the-Leader Strategy. "

Brinkmanship	:	"a term used in negotiating in which one party bluffs or pushes the other to the very limit on price, terms, conditions, etc and refuses to concede further; the second party must call the bluff at the risk of losing the business. "

Broad Assortment	:	an assortment strategy in which a reseller decides to carry a wide range of related product lines. See Assortment Strategies; Deep Assortment; Exclusive Assortment; Scrambled Assortment.

Broadening Concept	:	the extension of marketing as a business philosophy to encompass the marketing activities of non-profit organisations. See Non-Profit Marketing.

Broker	:	a marketing intermediary or middleman between buyer and seller; an agent. See Agent.

Browngoods	:	"a classification of consumer durables which includes television sets, radios and hi-fi equipment. See Whitegoods. "

Buddy System	:	an on-the-job sales training method in which an experienced salesperson is responsible for the training of a new salesperson. See Curbside Training; Formal Training; On-the-Job Training.

Budget Determination	:	see Advertising Budget Determination.

Budgeting	:	"the process of financial planning of income and expenditure for the firm's various activities - marketing, promotion, advertising, personal selling, etc. "

Budgeting Models	:	see Computer Modelling.

Build Strategy	:	decision-making aimed at increasing market penetration of existing products into existing markets or new markets or both.

Bundled Pricing	:	see Bundling.

Bundling	:	the practice of offering two or more products or services as a single package at a special price; also referred to as Bundled Pricing. See Unbundling.

Burst Advertising Expenditure	:	a concentration of advertising expenditure over a limited time period. - See Drip Advertising Expenditure.

Business Analysis	:	"a stage in the new product development process in which the information gathered in the screening, concept development and testing and marketing planning stages is used to produce break-even and return-on-investment projections. See New Product Development. "

Business Cycles	:	"historical patterns of prevailing economic conditions - prosperity, recession, depression and recovery. "

Business Guides	:	"journals, periodicals, magazines etc. containing information about the size, product range, personnel, etc. of companies. "

Business Mix	:	the combination of businesses in which a firm is engaged.

Business Plan	:	"a blueprint for building a company, containing a definition of the company's mission, identified opportunities, objectives, strategies and action plans and control and evaluation measures. "

Business Portfolio Analysis Matrix	:	a tool used in business analysis as a means of classifying a firm's products or business units for strategic planning purposes. See Boston Consulting Group Portfolio Analysis Matrix; General Electric Strategic Business Portfolio Planning Grid.

Business Strength	:	a measure of the ability a firm has to compete successfully in a particular market.

Business-To-Business Marketing	:	see Industrial Marketing.

Buy Classes	:	"buying situations categorised according to the prior experience of the buyer with the product and supplier; buy classes can be classified as straight rebuys, modified rebuys and new tasks. See Modified Rebuy; New Task Buying; Straight Rebuy. "

Buyer	:	the individual who handles the actual purchase in a buying decision; a purchasing officer. See Buying Centre.

Buyer Action Theory	:	a traditional point of view holding that a prospect buys after being guided through certain mental processes by a salesperson. See AIDA Concept; Buyer Resolution Theory; Formula Approach.

Buyer Behaviour	:	the study of consumers and organisations in relation to their purchase decisions. See Consumer Behaviour; Organisational Buying Behaviour.

Buyer Dissonance	:	see Cognitive Dissonance.

Buyer Intention Forecast	:	a method of predicting future demand for a product by asking potential buyers for their likely requirements.

Buyer Involvement	:	a measure of the time and effort a buyer is prepared to devote to the purchase of a particular item. See High-Involvement Products; Low-Involvement Products.

Buyer Readiness Stage	:	the state of preparedness or willingness in which an individual consumer may be in regard to the purchase of a particular product; the stages are commonly listed as awareness; knowledge; liking; preference; conviction and purchase.

Buyer Resolution Theory	:	"the idea that a buyer decides to purchase only after mentally resolving five specific issues - need, product, source, price, and timing. "

Buyer's Market	:	a market in which there is an abundance of a particular good or service for sale.

Buyer-Seller Dyad	:	the two-way flow of communication between buyer and seller.

Buyer-Seller Interdependence	:	"the close relationship between buyers and sellers, especially in organisational markets, where buyers become highly dependent on sellers for assured supply and delivery. "

Buying Allowance	:	"a trade sales promotion in which buyers are offered a price reduction for each carton, case, etc. purchased during the period of the promotion. See Allowances. "

Buying Centre	:	"everyone within an organisation who participates in a buying decision; categories of participants within the buying centre are commonly referred to as users, influencers, deciders, buyers and gatekeepers. See Buyers; Deciders; Gatekeepers; Influencers; Users. "

Buying Committee	:	a group within a retailing organisation or chain which has responsibility for the purchase of merchandise for resale.

Buying Cycle	:	the time taken by an organisation to complete its decision to buy.

Buying Power	:	"the resources, especially financial, that customers have at a given time. "

Buying Signals	:	"signs or indications, verbal or nonverbal, that tell a salesperson that the buyer is ready to buy. "

Buying Situations	:	see Buy Classes.

By-Product	:	a secondary product produced during the process of manufacturing another.

By-Product Pricing	:	"a pricing method used in situations where a saleable by-product results in the manufacturing process. If the by-product has little value, and is costly to dispose of, it will probably not affect the pricing of the main product; if, on the other hand, the by-product has significant value, the manufacturer may derive a competitive advantage by charging a lower price for its main product. "

C-Type Response	:	a response to an advertisement or an advertising campaign which is immediately obvious. See S-Type Response.

Call	:	"a visit to a client or prospective buyer by a sales representative to gather information, make a sales presentation, secure an order, etc. "

Call Planning	:	"the arrangement of a sales representative's visits to buyers into an orderly sequence, the setting of objectives, and the formulation of strategies for each call. "

Call Report	:	a written record of sales calls made by a representative for submission to a supervisor. See Call.

Call-Back Approach	:	"making a second or subsequent attempt to sell to a particular buyer, usually presenting the product from an entirely new angle. See Call. "

CALLPLAN	:	an interactive computer program for determining the optimal number of calls to be made on each of a salesperson's accounts. See Call.

Campaign	:	a related selection and execution of IMC activities to achieve marketing communication objectives.

Canned Approach	:	see Stimulus-Response Approach.

Cannibalisation	:	the loss of sales of an existing product to a new offering in the product line. See Planned Cannibalisation; Unplanned Cannibalisation.

Capital Items	:	"long-lived business assets (buildings, plant and equipment, etc) of a firm. "

Capitalist System	:	see Free Market System.

Captioned Photograph	:	"a photograph with a brief description of its contents, frequently issued by public relations personnel with news releases or feature articles. "

Captive Product	:	"a product made specifically to be used with another, such as a refill with a ball-point pen, a blade with a razor, a battery with a torch, etc. "

Carload Freight Rate	:	a special rate offered to companies by railways to encourage them to ship in carload (c.l.) rather than less-than-carload (l.c.l.) quantities.

Carrying Costs	:	"costs associated with maintaining inventory, such as financing, storage, insurance and obsolescence. "

Carryover Effect in Advertising	:	"the rate at which the effectiveness of an advertising campaign diminishes with the passing of time; for example, an advertising campaign this month may have a carryover effect of .50 next month. "

Cartel	:	a group of firms (or nations) attempting to act as a monopoly to control the market price.

Case Allowance	:	discount allowed on products sold to retailers to encourage them to purchase in larger quantities. See Allowances.

Cash-and-Carry Wholesalers	:	Cash Cows

Cash Cows	:	products or strategic business units within the organisation's mix which are characterised by high market share and low market growth; Cash Cows produce the revenue required to develop and support less successful or newer products. See Boston Consulting Group Portfolio Analysis Matrix; Dogs; Question Marks; Stars.

Cash Discount	:	a reduction in price offered to a buyer in return for prompt settlement of account. See Discount.

Cash Flow	:	the money required by a company to meet expenses in a given period.

Cash Rebate	:	"money refunded to customers who buy merchandise from retailers within a specified time; the rebate allows dealers to clear inventories without cutting list price. For example, a new car dealer might announce that everyone who purchases a certain vehicle in the current month at the regular price of $25,000 will receive a cash rebate of $2,000. "

Cash Refund Offers	:	Casual Product Classes

Casual Product Classes	:	"broad classifications of products used to describe markets in everyday terms, eg. the pet food market, the photocopier market, the breakfast foods market, etc. See Standard Product Classes. "

Catalogue Marketing	:	a form of direct marketing in which customers order from catalogues which are sent to them by mail; the ordered goods are shipped directly to them.

Catalogue Showroom	:	see Catalogue Retailer.

Catalogue Retailer	:	retailers who mail catalogues to their customers and maintain showrooms where samples of the products for sale are displayed; orders are filled from back-room warehouses. Also called Mail Order House.

Category Manager	:	an individual responsible for the marketing strategies of all the brands in a product line; also referred to as a Product Line Manager.

Causal Research	:	marketing research which examines the cause-and-effect relationship among variables.

Caveat Emptor	:	"a Latin term meaning ""let the buyer beware"". The term implies that it is the customer's responsibility rather than the seller's to ensure that the goods or services offered for sale are able to deliver the desired satisfactions. Caveat Emptor is totally contrary to the marketing concept. See Caveat Vendor. "

CBD	:	abbrev. Central Business District.

Ceiling Price	:	see Price Ceiling.

Celebrity Endorsements	:	see Celebrity Testimonials.

Celebrity Testimonials	:	"advertisements featuring endorsements of products by well-known personalities from the field of entertainment, sport, politics, etc. "

Census	:	the collection of data from all possible sources in a population.

Central Business District	:	"the region of a city where retail and other businesses are concentrated, with a consequent high volume of traffic. "

Centralised Exchange System	:	a system for the trading of goods which utilises a central market. See Decentralised Exchange System.

Centre-of-Influence Method	:	"a prospecting method based on referrals; a salesperson uses influential people (bankers, solicitors, consultants, etc) to obtain leads to potential buyers. See Key Influence People. "

Cents-Off Deal	:	see Price Packs.

Chain Store	:	"a group of retail stores, centrally owned and managed, generally carrying the same kind of merchandise. "

Channel	:	see Marketing Channels.

Channel Captain	:	"a member of a marketing channel assuming a leadership role in organising the system in order to lessen conflict, achieve economies of scale and maximise business impact. See Marketing Channels. "

Channel Conflict	:	discord among members in a marketing channel. See Horizontal Channel Conflict; Inter-type Channel Conflict; Marketing Channels; Vertical Channel Conflict.

Channel Flows	:	"the flow of physical goods and services, title, promotion, information and payment along a channel of distribution. See Marketing Channels. "

Channel Leadership	:	see Channel Captain.

Channel Length	:	the number of levels of marketing intermediaries used in the channel of distribution. See Direct Marketing Channel; One Level Channel; Two Level Channel; Zero Level Channel.

Channel Levels	:	see Channel Length.

Channel Mix	:	the degree of intensivity selected for the distribution of a product. See Exclusive Distribution; Intensive Distribution; Selective Distribution.

Channel of Distribution	:	see Marketing Channels.

Channel Power	:	the circumstances - economic or social that allow one channel member to control another. See Channel Captain.

Channel Strategy	:	decision-making related to the selection of the most appropriate method of controlling the flow of goods or services from producer to end-user.

Channel System	:	"a method of linking customers and intermediaries by means of an integrated communication network, providing instant ordering, better cost analysis, better inventory control, etc. "

Chlorofluorocarbons	:	chemical substances believed to deplete the protective ozone layer of the earth's upper atmosphere; used until recently in refrigerants and in numerous aerosol products.

Choice Set	:	the final set of brands from which a consumer makes a purchase choice after some brands in the awareness set have been considered and rejected. See Awareness Set.

CIF	:	"abbrev. Cost, Insurance and Freight. "

CIF Pricing	:	see Cost-Insurance-Freight Pricing.

Citizen Action Public	:	one of the several types of public which may influence an organisation's decision-making; a group within a community which may exert pressure on an organisation to act in a certain way; pressure groups. See Pressure Group; Publics.

Class Rate	:	the standard charge for the shipment of goods by a carrier.

Classical Conditioning	:	Classified Advertising

Classified Advertising	:	print media advertising in which similar goods and services are grouped together in categories under appropriate headings.

Clincher	:	"an additional inducement offered to a potential buyer by a salesperson in order to close a sale; inducements might include price discounts, rebates, extended credit, reduced delivery charges, etc. "

Close	:	the critical stage in the selling process when the salesperson attempts to obtain the buyer's commitment to the purchase.

Closed Promotion	:	"a sales promotion which is available only to a specific, high-potential target; for example, a bank might wish to target graduating university students and send coupons to them by mail. See Open Promotion. "

Closed Territory	:	an exclusive territory assigned to a reseller by a manufacturer; the reseller is required to sell only to customers within the territory. Closed territories are generally illegal under the Trade Practices Act.

Closed-End Question	:	a question which allows a respondent to choose an answer from a given list. See Open-End Question.

Closing	:	the act of gaining a commitment to purchase from a buyer; getting an order.

Closing Signals	:	see Buying Signals.

Closing Skill	:	the ability of a salesperson to obtain the buyer's commitment to the purchase.

Closing Techniques	:	methods employed by a salesperson when asking for an order and aimed at obtaining a favourable response from a buyer.

Cluster Analysis	:	a multivariate statistical technique used to identify entities with similar characteristics from those without them.

Cluster Sample	:	a form of probability sample where respondents are drawn from a random sample of mutually exclusive groups (usually geographic areas) within a total population; also called an area sample. See Stratified Sample.

Clutter	:	"All non-programming time on radio and TV; this includes time given to advertsing commercials, station or channel promotions, station or channel identifications and program credits. Excessively high clutter levels may result in audience tune-out. See Clutter Level; Audience Tune-Out. "

Clutter Level	:	See Clutter; Audience Tune-Out.

Cognitive Dissonance	:	a doubt that surfaces when a buyer becomes aware that an alternative product may offer more desirable benefits than the one purchased. The buyer wonders whether the right choice has been made.

Cold Calling	:	making a sales call on a client without an appointment.

Cold Canvassing	:	see Cold Calling

Collusion	:	agreement between a group of companies to fix a common price. See Cartel.

Combination Branding	:	emphasising a corporate or family name as well as an individual brand name in product marketing. See Corporate Branding; Family Brand.

Command System	:	see Planned Economy; Controlled Allocation System.

Commercial	:	a television advertisement .

Commercial Traveller	:	a late nineteenth century term of American origin for a salesperson.

Commercialisation	:	the final stage of the new product development process in which the decision is made to put the new product into full scale production and to launch it. See New Product Development; Product Launch.

Commission	:	a payment made to a salesperson based on a percentage of the value of the goods sold.

Commission Override	:	a commission paid to a sales manager based on a percentage of his or her salespeople's commissions.

Commodity Markets	:	markets typified by the homogeneity of products and a virtual irrelevance of branding.

Commodity Product	:	a product that cannot be significantly differentiated from competitors' products.

Commodity Rate	:	a rate which is applied in any situation where freight is product specific rather than based on volume or weight; also called a Special Rate.

Common Carrier	:	"regular scheduled transportation services such as railways, airlines and trucking lines, available to all users. "

Common Market	:	a group of geographically associated countries limiting trade barriers among member nations and applying common tariffs to products from non-members; also known as regional trading blocks. See European Common Market.

Communicability	:	the extent to which the benefits of a new product are likely to be noticed and discussed by consumers; a major determinant of the rate of new product adoption.

Communication Effect of Advertising	:	"the influence that an advertisement or some other form of promotional activity might have, is having, or has had, on consumers or on the usage of a product advertised. See Advertising Effectiveness. "

Communication Process	:	"the process by which a message, encoded by a sender, is transmitted through a medium to a receiver, who encodes the message and provides feedback. "

Communications	:	see Marketing Communication.

Company Mission	:	see Corporate Mission.

Comparative Advertising	:	advertising in which a firm names a competitor's product and compares it with its own; also called Comparison Advertising. See Competitive Advertising.

Comparative Influence	:	"one of three types of influence exerted on consumers (with informational influence and normative influence) by reference groups; comparative influence occurs when the reference group provides the means by which consumers compare their beliefs, attitudes and behaviour - the more similarity there is between a consumer's opinions and those of his or her reference group, the greater the comparative influence of that group. See Reference Group; Informative Influence; Normative Influence. "

Comparison Advertising	:	see Comparative Advertising.

Comparison Pricing	:	a pricing method in which the price for a new product is set by comparing the benefits it offers to those of other products in the same category.

Compatibility	:	the extent to which a new product requires consumers to adjust to unfamiliar methods of use; a major determinant of the rate of new product adoption. See Adoption Rate Determinants.

Compensation	:	remuneration for work done on behalf of another.

Compensation Method	:	handling a buyer's objection by admitting the validity of the objection but pointing out some advantage that compensates for it. See Objections.

Compensation Systems	:	"schemes for remunerating salespeople for tasks performed; commonly used systems include straight salary, straight commission, and a combination of salary and incentives. "

Competition	:	see Competitors.

Competition-Oriented Pricing	:	a method of pricing in which a manufacturer's price is determined more by the price of a similar product sold by a powerful competitor than by considerations of consumer demand and cost of production. See Cost-Plus Pricing; Target Return Pricing; Value Pricing.

Competitive Advantage	:	that which one firm can do better than another to satisfy consumer needs and wants.

Competitive Advertising	:	advertising which points out features of a brand which may not be available in other brands but does not directly name a competitor. See Comparative Advertising.

Competitive Analysis	:	the assessment of the strengths and weaknesses of competing firms.

Competitive Attack Strategies	:	"options available for attacking a competitor; these include a frontal attack (head-on), a flanking attack (attack at a point of weakness), an encirclement attack (attack on several fronts at once), a by-pass attack (attack by diversifying into new territories, products or technologies) and a guerilla attack (attack by waging small, intermittent skirmishes). "

Competitive Bidding	:	a process in which buyers request potential suppliers to submit quotations or tenders for a proposed purchase or contract.

Competitive Depositioning	:	attempting to change the beliefs of buyers about the attributes of a competitor's product; the attempt may be especially useful in cases where buyers generally have an inflated perception of the quality of a competitor's product. See Market Positioning.

Competitive Environment	:	that part of the company's external environment which consists of other firms vying for patronage of the same market.

Competitive Equilibrium	:	a market situation of relatively stable competitive position and activity.

Competitive Myopia	:	marketing short-sightedness in regard to the activity of competitors.

Competitive Niche	:	a segment in a market in which a company can compete effectively.

Competitive Parity Budgeting	:	a method of allocating a promotion budget based on matching the activity of a major competitor.

Competitive Position	:	"an organisation's ranking in its industry by size and business strength; hypothetically, each competitor may be classified as a market leader, market challenger, market follower, or market nicher, according to the market share it holds. "

Competitive Scope	:	"the breadth or narrowness of an organisation's focus as measured horizontally by the range of industries, market segments, or geographical regions it targets, or vertically by the degree to which it is integrated. "

Competitive Situation	:	"the standing of an organisation in its markets, relative to its competitors, when all players are described in terms of their size, resources, capabilities, product range and quality, marketing strategies, opportunities, goals, intentions, behaviour and similar variables. See Competitive Position. "

Competitive Strategy	:	planning intended to give a company a competitive advantage over its competitors.

Competitors	:	firms vying for patronage of the same market. See Brand Competitors; Enterprise Competitors; Generic Competitors; Product-Form Competitors; Service-Form Competitors.

Complementary Product Pricing	:	"the pricing of one product at the optimum level, regardless of cost or profit considerations, so that the demand for another product which is used with it will increase and so maximise the profits from both products together. "

Complete Segmentation	:	the division of a market into segments consisting of individual customers and tailoring a product and marketing program for each. See Custom Marketing; Customised Marketing Mix; Disaggregated Market.

Complex Decision Making	:	"in consumer behaviour, buying which is associated with the purchasing of high-involvement products which are important to the consumer and therefore require considerable thought and effort. Also referred to as Extensive Problem Solving. See High-Involvement Products. "

Complexity	:	the degree of difficulty which a purchaser of a new product has in understanding it; a major determinant of the rate of new product adoption. See Adoption Rate Determinants.

Computer Modelling	:	"constructing and manipulating computer-based simulations of marketing situations to examine the consequences of alternative courses of action; computer models, often developed from an analysis of historical data, may be used to determine the optimum level of advertising and other promotional expenditure, etc. See Advertising Budget Determination. "

Concentrated Marketing	:	a marketing segmentation strategy in which the firm concentrates its entire efforts and resources on serving one segment of the market; also called Niche Marketing.

Concentrated Segmentation Strategy	:	"one of four possible segmentation strategies (with market segment expansion strategy, product line expansion strategy and differentiated segmentation strategy); in a concentrated segmentation strategy a firm targets one product to one segment of the market. See Segmentation Strategies; Market Segment Expansion Strategy; Product Line Expansion Strategy; Differentiated Segmentation. "

Concentric Diversification	:	"a growth strategy in which a company seeks to develop by adding new products, also called convergent diversification, to its existing product lines to attract new customers. See Conglomerate Diversification; Horizontal Diversification. "

Concept Development and Testing	:	"a two-phase stage in the development of a new product in which potential buyers are presented first with the idea or description of the new product (concept testing) and later with the product itself in final or prototype form (product testing), in order to obtain their reaction. See Product Testing; New Product Development. "

Conference Selling	:	"a selling situation in which a salesperson enlists the assistance of other people in the company (technicians, engineers, etc.) in meeting with a group of buyers from different firms to explain a new product or discuss problems and opportunities. See Group Selling; Team Selling. "

Conglomerate Diversification	:	a growth strategy in which a company seeks to develop by adding totally unrelated products and markets to its existing business. See Concentric Diversification; Horizontal Diversification.

Conjoint Analysis	:	a statistical technique used to determine the optimal combination of variables.

Conjunctive Model (of Brand Evaluation)	:	"the idea that consumers establish minimum attribute levels which acceptable brands must possess; when about to make a purchase, they will consider only those brands that exhibit a conjunction of all the minimum requirements. Other models of brand evaluation include the expectancy-value model, ideal brand model, disjunctive model, lexicographic model and determinance model. "

Consequence Probes	:	verbal tactics used by a salesperson to illustrate the disadvantages to a buyer of not making a particular purchase.

Consideration Set	:	see Evoked Set.

Consultative Selling	:	"an approach to personal selling emphasising the role of the salesperson as consultant; the salesperson assists the buyer to identify needs and find need-satisfactions in the product range, seeking to build long-term customer relationships leading to repeat business. See Relationship Selling. "

Consumables	:	see Consumer Non-Durables.

Consumer Attitudes	:	see Attitudes.

Consumer Behaviour	:	the behaviour of individuals when buying goods and services for their own use or for private consumption.

Consumer Credit	:	finance made available by leading companies to consumers for purchases with arrangements having been made for the loan to be repaid with interest.

Consumer Durables	:	"a classification of consumer products consisting of goods with a long useful life, such as cars, electrical appliances and furniture. See Consumer Non-Durables. "

Consumer Franchise	:	the understanding consumers have of a brand. See Franchise-Building Sales Promotions.

Consumer Goods	:	items purchased by consumers for personal and household use; consumer goods are classified as durables and non-durables. See Convenience Goods; Shopping Goods; Specialty Goods; Unsought Goods.

Consumer Market	:	buyers and potential buyers of goods and services for personal and household use.

Consumer Needs	:	Forces directed to specific goals that can be achieved by purchase behaviour. The motive force for directing to one brand or another.

Consumer Non-Durables	:	a classification of frequently purchased consumer goods; non-durables are items which are consumed in one use or a few uses; expendables. Consumer non-durables are further sub-divided into packaged and non-packaged goods. See Consumer Durables; Packaged Goods; Non-Packaged Goods.

Consumer Product Classes	:	"categories of goods and services bought by consumers for their personal use; classes include convenience goods, shopping goods, specialty goods, unsought goods, and services. "

Consumer Research	:	"marketing research into the requirements, opinions, attitudes, etc. of consumers. "

Consumer Rights	:	fair entitlements due to consumers when buying from producers and resellers.

Consumer Sales Promotion - promotional activity	:	"excluding advertising, personal selling and publicity - intended to motivate potential purchasers of personal and household products to buy. "

Consumer Wearout	:	a decrease in the effectiveness of an advertisement or promotional campaign due to boredom and familiarity.

Consumerism	:	a social movement intended to safeguard the rights of consumers.

Consummatory Advertising	:	advertising which stresses the benefits of taking immediate action to purchase.

Contactual Reference Group	:	a group with which an individual has contact and which influences the individual's purchase decisions. See Aspirational Group; Dissociative Reference Group; Membership Group; Reference Groups.

Containerisation	:	the transportation of unitised and palletised goods by means of large crates or containers. See Palletisation; Unitisation.

Contests	:	"a form of sales promotion in which consumers are induced to buy earlier, or in greater quantity, by the offer of prizes of cash or merchandise to be won in a competition. See Sales Promotion. "

Contingent Method	:	"see ""What if..."" Method (of handling sales objections.) "

Continuity	:	the scheduling of media exposures of a particular advertisement or campaign evenly within a given period. See Flighting; Pulsing.

Continuous Marketing Research	:	on-going marketing research (as opposed to that conducted for a specific purpose.) See Ad Hoc Marketing Research.

Continuum of Planning	:	"the idea that planning is a multi-level process, beginning at the top with corporate planning and going downwards through all divisions of the firm, with each subsequent level linked to the one above it by the over-riding mission and objectives of the corporation. "

Continuum of Sales Jobs	:	"the idea that all kinds of sales jobs are similar in some respects but vary in the degree of difficulty involved; the difficulty is linked to the amount of creativity required in finding new customers and persuading them to buy, and to the tangibility and complexity of the product. "

Contract Carrier	:	a transportation firm operating exclusively in one industry and contracted to particular firms.

Contract Law	:	the body of law relating to contracts.

Contract Manufacturing	:	the production and marketing by agreement of a company's product by an overseas firm.

Contract Rate	:	a charge negotiated between carrier and shipper for the transportation of a commodity; sometimes called a Negotiated Rate.

Contractual Sales Force	:	salespeople who are not full or part-time paid representatives of a company but who sell for it on a commission basis.

Contractual Vertical Marketing System	:	a form of vertical marketing system in which independent firms at different levels of distribution are tied together by contract to achieve economies of scale and greater sales impact. See Administered Vertical Marketing System; Corporate Vertical Marketing System; Vertical Marketing System.

Control-Oriented Pricing	:	a system of pricing in which a product's price is controlled by government or by some regulating body.

Controlled Allocation System	:	see Planned Economy; Command System.

Convenience Goods	:	"a category of consumer goods which are bought frequently, quickly and with a minimum of emotional involvement; the category includes staples, impulse goods and emergency goods. See Consumer Product; Emergency Goods; Impulse Goods; Staples. "

Convenience Product	:	a category of consumer product purchased frequently and with little thought and effort.

Convenience Sample	:	a form of nonprobability sample in which the researcher selects readily available respondents.

Convenience Store	:	"a neighbourhood store which stocks frequently purchased items such as milk, bread and cigarettes. "

Convergent Diversification	:	Disversification into related businesses. See Concentric Diversification; Divergent Acquisition; Diversification.

Conversional Marketing	:	marketing activity intended to get people to change their ideas and attitudes about something they dislike.

Cooling-Off Period	:	"a short period of time, usually a few days, in which purchasers of a product may void a sale contract if they change their minds about purchasing the goods offered. "

Cooperative Advertising	:	advertising sponsored by two or more organisations to promote the goods or services of each.

Copy Strategy Statement	:	"a document prepared by advertising agency executives as a guide for their creative staff in the preparation and execution of an advertisement; the copy strategy statement describes the objectives, content, support and tone of the desired advertisement. "

Copy Testing	:	"the pre-testing of advertising copy for print advertisements, usually by giving respondents a portfolio of dummy advertisements in a magazine format and asking them to recall copy points; or the post-testing of advertising copy, usually by asking respondents to look through an actual magazine and then comment on advertisements they remember. "

Copycat Product	:	"a product that has been designed, branded or packaged to look exactly like that of a well-established competitor; a cheap imitation. "

Copyright	:	"protection in law afforded to authors, musicians, artists, etc. in respect to the works they have created. "

Core Product	:	"the intangible benefit or service offered by a product; for example, the core product offered to a purchaser of shampoo is clean, healthy hair. See Actual Product; Augmented Product. "

Corporate Advertising	:	"a form of institutional advertising focussing not on a particular product or product range but on the organisation itself; the objective of corporate advertising may be patronage, image or issue. See Corporate Image Advertising; Corporate Issue Advertising; Corporate Patronage Advertising; Institutional Advertising. "

Corporate Branding	:	"associating the name of a corporation with the individual brand name in product marketing, usually to ensure that new product introductions will be more readily accepted; differs from family branding in that corporate branding is used for all products of the company or division rather than merely for a family of brands. See Family Brand; Individual Brand; Individual Brand Name; Product Line Brand Name; Single Brand Name. "

Corporate Culture	:	"the particular strategies, style, systems, environment and shared values within an organisation which contribute to its individuality. "

Corporate Family Name	:	see Family Brand.

Corporate Image	:	"the identity or perception of itself that an organisation attempts to convey to its publics, usually through corporate advertising. See Corporate Advertising; Corporate Image Advertising. "

Corporate-Image Advertising	:	advertising aimed at establishing an identity for a firm in the public mind. See Corporate Advertising; Corporate Image.

Corporate-Issue Advertising	:	advertising in which an organisation states publicly its position on a controversial issue. See Advocacy Advertising; Corporate Advertising.

Corporate Logo	:	"a mark, design, symbol, etc. used to identify, and reflect an appropriate image of a company or organisation; a form of institutional reminder advertising. "

Corporate Mission Statement	:	"the answer to the question ""What business are we in?""; the corporate mission statement, with a broad focus and a customer orientation, provides management with a sense of purpose. "

Corporate Objectives	:	"specific, realistic and measurable goals which an organisation plans to achieve within a given period of time. "

Corporate-Patronage Advertising	:	advertising which encourages customers to patronise the firm. See Corporate Advertising.

Corporate Planning	:	"planning at the highest level in an organisation, involving an analysis of the current situation, the setting of objectives, the formulation of strategies and tactics, implementation and evaluation. See Strategic Planning. "

Corporate Sponsorship	:	"a form of below-the-line advertising in which a corporation offers funding to a group, association, sporting body, etc. in return for a range of promotional opportunities. See Below-the-Line Advertising. "

Corporate Strategic Planning	:	see Strategic Planning.

Corporate Umbrella	:	"a term used in reference to the use made of the corporate name and corporate image as a shield for new product introductions, etc. "

Corporate Vertical Marketing System	:	a system of distribution channel organisation in which the orderly flow of products from producer to end-user is controlled by common ownership of the different levels of the system. See Administered Vertical Marketing System; Contractual Vertical Marketing System; Vertical Marketing System.

Corrective Advertising	:	advertising to correct erroneous claims or misleading messages in previous promotional announcements.

Correlation Techniques	:	a range of statistical techniques used to discover relationships between diverse elements in a marketing situation.

Cost Advantage	:	the competitive edge which can be gained by one company over another by reducing production or marketing costs or both so that it can offer cheaper prices or use excess profits to bolster promotion or distribution. See Absolute Cost Advantage; Marketing Advantage.

Cost of Goods Sold	:	the price paid by a company for the goods it sells to its customers.

Cost-Insurance-Freight Pricing	:	"a pricing approach common in exporting; the price quoted to the buyer includes ""cost, insurance and freight"". "

Cost Leadership Advantage	:	Cost-Per-Thousand Criterion

Cost-Per-Thousand Criterion	:	"a measure for comparing the cost effectiveness of media vehicles, calculated by dividing the cost of an advertisement in a particular medium by the number of thousands of its circulation. "

Cost-Plus Pricing	:	"a simple method of pricing in which a specified amount or percentage, known as the standard mark-up, is added to the unit cost of production of an item to determine its selling price. See Competition-Oriented Pricing; Target Return Pricing; Value Pricing. "

Cost/Profit Analysis	:	a sales management control measure involving the calculation of expenditure incurred in making sales; profitability analysis.

Counsellor Approach	:	see Adviser Close.

Counter Advertising	:	advertising sponsored by pressure groups in opposition to certain products.

Counterfeiting	:	"the copying of a competitor's well-known products. Some counterfeit products are intended to look as much like the original as possible, including the brand name; others are close, but not exact, copies; still others are cheap and unconvincing imitations. Counterfeiting is generally illegal. "

Countermarketing	:	"marketing activity intended to abolish interest in, and demand for, a product. "

Countertrade	:	a system of international trade based on bartering; such transactions may or may not involve cash payments.

Coupon	:	"a popular form of sales promotion, distributed on the package of the product, by direct mail, or in newspaper and magazine advertisements; the consumer is usually offered ""cents-off"" the next purchase upon presentation of the coupon. "

CPA	:	abbrev. Critical Path Analysis.

CPT	:	abbrev. Cost-Per-Thousand.

Creative Selling	:	an approach to selling in which salespeople aggressively seek out customers and use well-planned strategies to secure orders.

Credit	:	the allowance of time in which to pay for a purchase. See Consumer Credit.

Credit Card	:	"a small card, usually of plastic, used to obtain consumer products without immediate payment; the card is issued by a financial institution on the understanding that the consumer repays sums spent against the card with interest. "

Credit Terms	:	conditions negotiated between seller and buyer relating to the time within which the buyer is obliged to pay for the products purchased and any discounts to be allowed by the seller for earlier payment or additional services performed.

Critical-Path Analysis	:	a planning technique used to keep projects on schedule; a flowchart shows time allotments and priorities for each activity.

Cross Elasticity of Demand	:	a measure of the affect a change in the price of one product will have on the demand for a substitute or complementary product. See Elasticity of Demand.

Cross-Over Selling	:	see Cross-Selling.

Cross-Selling	:	selling by a salesperson of some part of the company's total product range for which another division or salesperson has prime responsibility.

Cues	:	"an environmental entity (advertisement, sign, store display, etc) which results in a specific response to satisfy a drive. See Learning. "

Cultural Diversity	:	the range of different value systems existing in a multicultural society.

Cultural Values	:	"ideas, beliefs, attitudes, opinions, principles, etc long cherished by members of a society. "

Culture	:	the basic beliefs and values cherished by a society as a whole and handed down from one generation to the next.

Cumulative Quantity Discount	:	a price reduction offered to a purchaser in which the amount of the discount increases over time with the volume purchased. See Non-Cumulative Quantity Discount.

Curbside Sales Training	:	informal coaching or training of a sales representative by a supervisor in the field. See Buddy System; Formal Training; On-the-Job Training.

Current Ratio	:	the commonest of three financial ratios used to evaluate a firm's liquidity; current assets are expressed as a percentage of current liabilities. See Acid-Test Ratio; Quick Ratio.

Curve Fitting	:	"a method of analysing associative data in which a number of possible curve shapes - straight lines, concave, convex, s-shaped etc - are used with historical data to discover trends or relationships. "

Custom Marketing	:	marketing activity in which a company attempts to satisfy the unique needs of every customer; also called Market Atomisation Strategy. See Disaggregated Market; Complete Segmentation; Customised Marketing Mix.

Custom Publishing	:	"the publishing of a magazine by an organisation wishing to strengthen its bonds with its customers and to exercise greater control over the editorial environment in which its advertisements appear; a custom published magazine will usually carry outside advertisements as well in order to defray the cost of the launch and lend an air of legitimacy. Jenny Craig International, Mary Kay Cosmetics, the Benetton Group and IBM Corp. have all launched magazines. "

Customary Price	:	the traditional price; the price that consumers expect to pay for a certain product.

Customer Orientation	:	see Customer-Oriented Management.

Customer Record	:	"a card, slip or computer file on which is recorded pertinent facts about a prospect or customer (name, address, account history, etc.) as an aid to making a sale when next contacted by a salesperson. "

Customer Relations Department	:	a division of an organisation with responsibility for ensuring that customers are satisfied with the goods or services they have purchased and with the way the organisation has served them.

Customer Retention	:	maintaining the existing customer base by establishing good relations with all who buy the company's product.

Customer Service	:	a wide variety of activities intended to ensure that customers receive the goods and services they require to satisfy their needs or wants in the most effective and efficient manner possible.

Customer-Driven Distribution Systems	:	a system of distribution designed with customer requirements rather than a company's convenience in mind.

Customer Need management	:	Customer Orientation

Customer Orientation	:	Customer Orientation

Customer-Oriented Management	:	a management philosophy or state-of-mind in which it is recognised that the effective and efficient satisfaction of customer needs and wants provides the surest means of achieving the organisation's own goals.

Customer Panels	:	see Focus Group.

Customer Philosophy	:	Customer Retention

Customer Retention	:	Customer Surveys

Customer Surveys	:	Customer Training

Customer Training	:	training in the proper and efficient use of equipment given by a vendor to its customer's employees; provision of training by the vendor not only adds value to the product but also offers the vendor a means of differentiating itself from suppliers of the same or similar equipment.

Customer Value Analysis	:	an organisation's rating of the value it provides to its customers relative to that provided by its competitors.

Customised Marketing Mix	:	"in international marketing, a marketing program uniquely designed for a particular country. See Complete Segmentation; Custom Marketing; Disaggregated Market; Market Atomisation Strategy."

DAGMAR	:	"acronym for Defining Advertising Goals for Measured Advertising Results, after the title of a book by Russell H. Colley (New York: Association of National Advertisers, 1961). See DAGMAR Approach. "

DAGMAR approach	:	an approach to measuring advertising effectiveness in which advertising objectives are turned into specific measurable goals. See DAGMAR.

Daily Activities Report	:	"a record of a salesperson's activities on a day-by-day basis, showing clients visited, products presented and results; it may also include reasons for the failure to sell. "

Daily Sales Plan	:	"a record of a salesperson's intended sales calls on a day-by-day basis, listing the clients to be visited, the objectives of each call, and the anticipated outcomes. "

Data	:	facts or information gathered in a marketing research study. See Primary Research; Secondary Research.

Data Analysis	:	"the processing of marketing research findings to summarise a situation, discover relationships between elements of the information, or to draw conclusions from them. See Marketing Research. "

Data Collection	:	the activity of gathering facts or information about a subject in a marketing research study. See Marketing Research.

Database	:	"information arranged in such a way that it can be stored in, and processed by, a computer. See Database Marketing. "

Database Marketing	:	"the use of large collections of computer-based information in marketing; the database listings may be reference databases containing information on specific topics; full databases which contain full transcripts of documents or articles being sought; or source databases which contain listings of names and addresses, etc of prospective customers. "

Date Code	:	a date on a package indicating either the date by which the product should be used or the date the product was packed. See Date Stamping.

Date Stamping	:	See Open Dating.

Dealer Listing	:	the namimg in a product advertisement of certain retailers who have stocks; the naming of dealers is done as a convenience to consumers and to encourage the retailers to carry higher stock levels. Also referred to as Tagging.

Dealer Loader	:	a gift given to a retailer who purchases a specified quantity of a product during a trade sales promotion. See Trade Sales Promotion.

Death of Salesman	:	"a play by the U.S. playwright, Arthur Miller, set in the 1930s, the era of the ""selling concept""; the play and its central character, Willy Loman, a salesman, are often referred to in sales training material. "

Decentralised Exchange System	:	any system for the exchange of goods or services which does not utilise a central marketplace. See Centralised Exchange System.

Deceptive Advertising	:	advertising intended to deceive consumers with false or misleading claims.

Deceptive Packaging	:	packaging intended to deceive the purchaser; excessive ullage creates the impression that the volume of the contents is greater than it actually is. See Ullage.

Deceptive Pricing	:	the pricing of goods and services in such a way as to cause a customer to be misled; an example of deceptive pricing is bait-and-switch pricing. See Bait-and-Switch Pricing.

Deciders	:	those who actually make the decision in the organisational buying process; the deciders are often difficult to identify because they may not necessarily have the formal authority to buy. See Buying Centre.

Decision Flow Diagram	:	see Decision Tree.

Decision Making	:	"choosing between alternative courses of action using cognitive processes - memory, thinking, evaluation, etc; also called Problem Solving. "

Decision Matrix	:	a tool used in decision making in which the various dimensions of a problem are listed and rated to determine the most appropriate alternative in a particular situation.

Decision Support System	:	"any computerised system of changing raw data (sales, stock levels, etc) into information that can be used by management in decision making. "

Decision Tree	:	a decision-making tool in which alternative options are portrayed graphically as branches on a tree; also referred to as a Decision Flow Diagram.

Decline Stage	:	"the final stage of the product life cycle (after introductory stage, growth stage and maturity stage) when sales are dropping because the original need and want have diminished or because another product innovation has been introduced. See Product Life Cycle; Introductory Stage; Growth Stage; Maturity Stage. "

Decoding	:	the step in the communication process in which the receiver accepts and interprets the message. See Communication Process; Encoding.

Deep Assortment	:	an assortment strategy in which a reseller decides to carry many variants of each product in the range. See Assortment Strategies; Broad Assortment; Exclusive Assortment; Scrambled Assortment.

Defensive Advertising	:	advertising intended to combat the effects of a competitor's promotion.

Deflation	:	a slowing of the economy characterised by falling prices and wages; the reverse of inflation.

Delayed Quotation Pricing	:	an industrial pricing method in which the seller delays quoting a price until delivery; the method protects the seller against cost over-runs and production delays.

Delivered Pricing	:	"a pricing method in which the final price to the buyer is adjusted to include transportation costs; the seller takes responsibility for arranging delivery but adds the cost to the quoted price. Four widely used methods of delivered pricing are single-zone pricing, multiple-zone pricing, base-point pricing and freight-absorption pricing. See Base-Point Pricing; Freight-Absorption Pricing; Multiple-Zone Pricing; Single-Zone Pricing. "

Delphi Technique	:	a forecasting method in which a cordinator seeks predictions from experts who revise their opinions in light of the opinions of the others until some degree of consensus is reached.

Demand	:	a measure of those in a market who wish to buy a product and can afford to do so.

Demand Backward Pricing	:	a pricing method in which an estimation is made of the price that customers are willing to pay for a given product; this price is then compared to the per unit cost to see if it meets the firm's profit objectives.

Demand Curve	:	a line drawn on a graph to represent the number of units of a product which will be purchased at any particular price point.

Demand Elasticity	:	see Elasticity of Demand.

Demand Inelasticity	:	see Inelasticity of Demand.

Demand-Backward Pricing	:	"a method of pricing in which prices are set by determining what consumers are willing to pay; then, costs are deducted to see if the profit margin is adequate. "

Demand-Pull Approach	:	developing new products on the basis of market demand rather than on that of company-generated ideas. See Product-Push Approach.

Demarketing	:	"marketing aimed at limiting growth; pracised, for example, by governments to conserve natural resources, or by companies unable to serve adequately the needs of all potential customers. "

Democratic Leadership Style	:	a style of leadership characterised by group participation in decision-making. See Autocratic Leadership Style.

Demographic Characteristics	:	"variables within a nation's population, such as age, gender, income level, marital status, ethnic origin and education level. "

Demographic Segmentation	:	the division of the heterogeneous population of a country into relatively homogeneous groups on the basis of variables within the population mix; sometimes called State-of-Being Segmentation. See Segmentation Bases.

Demographic Variables	:	see Demographic Characteristics.

Demography	:	"the study of the range of physical, social and economic characteristics that exist within a population. "

Department Store	:	a large retail store offering a wide variety of goods in different departments. See Full-Line Department Store; Limited-Line Department Store.

Dependent Variables	:	the variables in a research experiment which are affected by manipulation of the explanatory or experimental variables. See Experimental Variables.

Deployment	:	the configuration or arrangement of a sales force into territories on some logical basis.

Depreciation	:	an allowance made in a balance sheet for wear and tear; a measure of the loss of value of a fixed asset because of use or obsolescence.

Depth Interviews	:	"a qualitative marketing research approach in which interviews are conducted by a trained moderator with individuals, rather than with groups, to obtain information about a product or brand. See Focus Group. "

Depth of Product Line	:	see Product Line Length.

Depth Selling	:	see Problem-Solving Approach.

Deregulation	:	the complete or partial removal of government control and restrictions relating to a specific business activity or industry.

Derived Demand	:	demand for raw materials in a producer market which is based on the demand for consumer products. See Primary Demand.

Descriptive Label	:	"a label on a product which announces the size, net weight, ingredients, composition, nutritional value, etc. See Label. "

Designated Marketing Area	:	See Area Of Influence.

Desire Competitors	:	all companies and organisations offering a product that the consumer desires immediately. See Competitors.

Desk Jobber	:	see Drop Shipper.

Desk Research	:	see Secondary Research.

Desk-to-Desk Direct Marketing	:	"a form of business-to-business selling in which firms purchase and use computer databases to locate potential customers; typically, the databases are compiled by list brokers and are organised according to business type, sales revenue, number of employees, location and telephone area code. "

Detailer	:	"a salesperson, especially in the pharmaceutical drug industry, whose primary task is to inform clients about new products. See Missionary Selling. "

Determinance Model (of Brand Evaluation)	:	"a model used in the study of consumer decision processes to evaluate alternative brands. The idea that consumers, about to make a purchase, will not be swayed in their product choice by any one product attribute, no matter how important, if all products possess the same amount of the attribute. Thus, the decision is made on the basis of a less important attribute. Other models of brand evaluation include the expectancy-value model, ideal brand model, conjunctive model, lexicographic model and determinance model. "

Deterministic Models	:	"a statistical tool used in sales forecasting in which marketing variables, such as price levels, advertising expenditures and sales promotion expenses, are used to predict market share or sales. "